AI memo No. 603 November, 1980
Published in Minsky, Marvin,
"Jokes and their Relation to the Cognitive Unconscious."
In @i["Cognitive Constraints on Communication,"]
Vaina and Hintikka (eds.) Reidel, 1981
This net-version of the paper is rather raw, because it's from a
pre-publication draft file.
JOKES and the Logic of the Cognitive Unconscious
Marvin Minsky, MIT
Abstract: Freud's theory of jokes explains how they overcome the
mental "censors" that make it hard for us to think "forbidden"
thoughts. But his theory did not work so well for humorous nonsense
as for other comical subjects. In this essay I argue that the
different forms of humor can be seen as much more similar, once we
recognize the importance of knowledge about knowledge and,
particularly, aspects of thinking concerned with recognizing and
suppressing bugs -- ineffective or destructive thought processes.
When seen in this light, much humor that at first seems pointless, or
mysterious, becomes more understandable.
Introduction ============
A gentleman entered a pastry-cook's shop and ordered a
cake; but he soon brought it back and asked for a glass of
liqueur instead. He drank it and began to leave without
having paid. The proprietor detained him. "You've not
paid for the liqueur." "But I gave you the cake in exchange
for it." "You didn't pay for that either." "But I hadn't
eaten it".
--- from Freud (1905).
In trying to classify humorous phenomena, Sigmund Freud asks
whether this should be called a joke, "for the fact is we do
not yet know in what the characteristic of being a joke
resides." Let us agree that some of the cake-joke's humor
is related to a logical absurdity -- leaving aside whether
it is in the logic itself, or in keeping track of it. Later
Freud goes on to ask what is the status of a "knife without
a blade which has no handle?" This absurdity has a
different quality; some representation is being misused --
like a frame without a picture.
Freud, who never returned to the subject after writing his
1905 book on the theory of jokes {0}, suggested that "censors"
in the mind form powerful, unconscious barriers that
make it difficult to think "forbidden" thoughts. But
jokes can elude these censors -- to create the pleasure of
unearned release of psychic energy, which is discharged in
the form of laughter. He explains why jokes tend to be
compact and condensed, with double meanings: this is to fool
the childishly simple-minded censors, who see only innocent
surface meanings and fail to penetrate the disguise of the
forbidden wishes.
But Freud's theories do not work as well for humorous
nonsense as for humorous aggression and sexuality. {0} In
this essay I try to show how these different forms of humor
can be seen as much more similar, once we make certain
observations about the nature of commonsense reasoning.
Here is our thesis:
1. Common sense logic is too unreliable for practical use. It
cannot be repaired, so we must learn to avoid its most common
malfunctions. Humor plays a special role in learning and
communicating about such matters.
2. It is not enough to detect errors in reasoning; one must anticipate
and prevent them. We embody much of our knowledge about how to do
this in the form of "censors" that suppress unproductive mental
states. This is why humor is so concerned with the prohibited.
3. Productive thinking depends on knowing how to use Analogy and
Metaphor. But analogies are often false, and metaphors misleading.
So the "cognitive unconscious" must suppress inappropriate
comparisons. This is why humor is so concerned with the nonsensical.
4. The consequences of intellectual failure are manifest in one's
own head, while social failures involve other people. Intellect and
Affect seem less different once we theorize that the "cognitive
unconscious" considers faulty reasoning to be just as "naughty" as
the usual "Freudian" wishes.
5. Humor evolved in a social context. Its forms include
graciously disarming ways to instruct others about inappropriate
behavior and faulty reasoning. This deviousness makes the subject
more confusing.
Our theory emphasizes the importance of knowledge about knowledge
and, particularly, aspects of thinking concerned with recognizing and
suppressing bugs -- ineffective or destructive thought processes.
When seen in this light, much humor that at first seems pointless, or
mysterious, becomes more understandable. {1}
I. PROBLEMS OF COMMON SENSE REASONING
When you tell a young child "I am telling a lie" then,
if he is old enough to reason so, he will think: "If that
is false, then he's not telling a lie. But, then it must be
true. But then, it must be a lie, for it says so. But then
---". And so on, back and forth.
A child might find this situation disagreeable for several reasons.
It challenges the belief that propositions are always either true or
false. It threatens to propagate through his knowledge-structure,
creating other inconsistencies. And he can make no progress when his
mind returns again and again to the same state. {2} Common sense can
go awry in endless ways. Beliefs can be wrong from the start, one can
make mistakes from each step to the next, and one can wander
aimlessly, getting nowhere. But before we discuss these, we should
observe what actually happens when you say things like "this
statement is false." Often the listener first seems puzzled, then
troubled, and finally laughs. "That's funny," he says. "Tell
me another liar joke".
THE PROBLEM OF TRUTH: How do we know where to begin? The
conclusions of even the best reasoning can be no better than its
premises. In mathematics, this is of little concern (because one
cares more where premises lead than where they come from). But in
real life, few propositions are perfectly trustworthy. What does one
do when an accepted "fact" turns out false? One of my children was
once entranced by an ornamental fish-shaped bowl with four short legs.
After a while she announced, somewhat uncertainly: "Some fish don't
have legs."
We never know anything for certain. What should one do upon reaching
a conclusion that appears false -- erase all the assumptions? When a
long held belief turns false, should one erase all that has been
deduced from it? When an acquaintance once tells a lie, should one
reject everything else he ever said? There is no simple, single
rule: each person must find his own ways to maintain his knowledge about
his knowledge. (Ref. Truth Maintenance Systems)
WHENCE THE RULES OF INFERENCE? How do we know how to infer? Most
people believe that if most A's are B's, and if most B's are C's,
then most A's are C's. Though false, this has great heuristic
value, especially for children who encounter few exceptions.
Psychologically, I see no great difference between heuristic and
logical reasoning; deduction is "just another" kind of evidence. We
firmly believe a deduced conclusion only when it seems plausible on
other grounds as well. At one time, many philosophers held that
faultless "laws of thought" were somehow inherent, a priori, in the
very nature of mind. This belief was twice shaken in the past
century; first when Russell and his successors showed how the logic
men employ can be defective, and later when Freud and Piaget started
to reveal the tortuous ways in which our minds actually develop.
After Russell observed that the seemingly frivolous "Who shaves the
Barber, who shaves everyone who does not shave himself?" was a truly
serious obstacle to formalizing common sense logic, he and others
tried to develop new formalisms that avoided such problems -- by
preventing the fatal self-references. But the proposed substitutes
were much too complicated to serve for everyday use.
I am inclined to doubt that anything very resembling formal logic
could be a good model for human reasoning. (The paper by Hewitt and
Kornfeld might suggest a possible avenue of compromise (Ref. BAK).)
In particular, I doubt that any logic that prohibits self-reference
can be adequate for psychology: no mind can have enough power --
without the power to think about Thinking itself. Without
Self-Reference it would seem immeasurably harder to achieve
Self-Consciousness -- which, so far as I can see, requires at least
some capacity to reflect on what it does. {3}
If Russell shattered our hopes for making a completely reliable
version of commonsense reasoning, still we can try to find the
islands of "local consistency," in which naive reasoning remains
correct. It seems that only certain kinds of expressions lead to
paradoxes and inconsistencies, and it seems worth taking some risks,
gambling for greater power -- provided we can learn, over time, to
avoid the most common disasters. We all know the legend of the great
mathematician who, warned that his proof would lead to a paradox if he
took one more step. He replied "Ah, but I shall not take that
step." {4} One would miss the point to treat this as a "mere" joke.
What it means, really, is that we build into our minds two
complementary functions:
We work to discover "islands of power" within which commonsense
reasoning seems safe.
We work also to find and mark the unsafe boundaries of those
islands.
In civilized communities, guardians display warnings to tell drivers
about sharp turns, skaters about thin ice. Similarly, our
philosophers and mathematicians display paradigms -- like the Barber,
the Tortoise, and the Liar -- to tell us where to stop -- and laugh.
I suggest that when such paradigms are incorporated into the mind,
they form intellectual counterparts to Freud's emotional censors.
This would help explain why purely logical nonsense so often has the
same humorous quality as do jokes about injury and discomfort -- the
problem that bothered Freud. The cake-joke reminds us, somewhat
obscurely, to avoid a certain kind of logical absurdity -- lest we do
ourselves some vaguely understood cognitive harm. Hence our thesis:
since we have no systematic way to avoid all the inconsistencies of
commonsense logic, each person must find his own way by building a
private collection of "cognitive censors" to suppress the
kinds of mistakes he has discovered in the past.
HEURISTIC CONTROL OF LOGIC: How do we know what next to do? I
once tutored a student having trouble with middle-school geometry. I
began to explain the axioms, and how proofs were structured. "I
understand all that," he said, "only I was sick the day the
teacher explained how to find the proofs."
It is not enough just to know the principles of reasoning; one must
know also when to apply them. We each know millions of facts, and
perhaps millions of rules of inference. Which to apply to what, and
when? There is a basic problem of direction, of not meandering, lest
one aimlessly derive billions of inferences, all perfectly logical but
none relevant to any goal. First, some "plan" is required. Next, one
must avoid circling -- returning to the same place again and again.
Finally, to avoid confusion, one needs an administrative structure to
keep track of what one is doing, and why.
The new science called Artificial Intelligence is concerned with just
such issues of the efficiency and effectiveness of Reason --
matters rarely discussed in Logic or Philosophy, which focus on
verifying that proofs are valid, or that arguments are sound, rather
than on how proofs are discovered. Much has been learned, in "AI",
about how to avoid excessive meandering and confusion, by using
goal-structures and plans -- techniques for insuring progress. Using
such methods, some modern computer programs can thread their ways
through some quite complicated situations.
Nevertheless, the problem of meandering is certain to re-emerge once
we learn how to make machines that examine themselves to formulate
their own new problems. Questioning one's own "top-level" goals
always reveals the paradox-oscillation of ultimate purpose. How could
one decide that a goal is worthwhile -- unless one already knew what
it is that is worthwhile? How could one decide when a question is
properly answered -- unless one knows how to answer that question
itself? Parents dread such problems and enjoin kids to not take
them seriously. We learn to suppress those lines of thoughts, to
"not even think about them" and to dismiss the most important of all
as nonsensical, viz. the joke "Life is like a bridge." "In what
way?" "How should I know?" Such questions lie beyond the shores of
sense and in the end it is Evolution, not Reason, that decides who
remains to ask them.
II. CENSORSHIP
Just like taboos in human societies, certain things must not
be thought inside the Mind. The best
way for a child to learn not to do a certain bad thing would
be to learn not to even to think of it. But isn't
that like trying "not to think of a monkey"? Contrast two
ways: (i) suppress an idea already in the mind or
(ii) prevent it from being thought in the first place:
(i) Stop thinking that!
(ii) Don't even (or ever) think that!
It is easy to begin to make a type (i) censor: wait for the specified
"bad" event to happen, and then suppress it. But how does one prevent
it from recurring? It seems harder to begin to make a type (ii)
censor, because it must be able to recognize the repressed
thought's Precursors --- but it is easier to see what to do next,
since each Precursor usually leads to several options, and suppressing
one still leaves the others. So we shall discuss only the second
censor-type.
So, our censor-builder has to learn to recognize Precursors --
mind-brain states that precede a recognizable (and, here, to be
prohibited) activity. To do this, it will need a short term memory
(to remember what just happened) and a long term memory (to store
the result of learning). The latter may eventually become quite
large, because a prohibited event may have many different
precursors. In any case, a experienced type (ii) censor can
recognize its joke by the situation and need not wait for the punch
line. A type (i) censor makes you wait till the comedian finishes:
only then can you complain "Oh, I've heard that one before!"
To place these in a larger framework, Let's consider a simple
"two-brain" theory. An "A-brain" has sensory inputs from the world,
and motor outputs to the world. The B-brain's inputs come from the
interior of A -- so B can perceive "A-states" --- and its outputs go
into A, so B can affect activities in A. Thus, B can "see" what is
happening inside A, and act to influence it, just as A can "see" and
affect what happens in the world. B need not -- and probably can not
-- know what A-events "mean," vis-a-vis the world, but B is in a
position to recognize such metapsychological conditions such as A
being "meandering, circling, or confused." {5}
When a B-censor acts, it must disturb the A-brain so as to suppress
the undesired activity. (It would be even better for B to remember,
from past events, which is a good way to go, but that is outside
this essay's concern.) In any case, the point is that
precursor-sensitive censors can do their work before the problems that
they evade actually arise. Probably, also, they can do this so
quickly and gently as to produce no noticeable mental phenomenology.
This would explain why censors are (in the) unconscious.
The censorship theory explains why a joke is not so funny if you've
heard it before; this is because a new censor has been constructed, or
an old one extended. Freud touches on "novelty" as a component of
humor, but never dwells on why old jokes get few laughs. I presume
that he simply considered it too obvious to mention, that censors are
learners.
How big must the censor memory be, to protect us from naive reasoning
mistakes? Probably not so large for formal logic, considering how
rarely we discover a new paradox. But for avoiding nonsense in
general, we might accumulate millions of censors. For all we know,
this "negative meta-knowledge" -- about patterns of thought and
inference that have been found defective or harmful -- may be a large
portion of all we know.
Consider the activities called play and practice. The insensitive
learning theories of behavioristic psychology regard
play not at all, and see practice as reinforcing something
repetitive. But practice (I conjecture) is often far from mere
repetition and refinement of the same thing; often it is exploratory,
testing out a skill's minute variations and perturbations -- and
learning which of them to enhance or suppress. Similarly
play, (commonly seen as "mere") is often also an exploration of
variations on a larger scale. Many other everyday activities can so
be seen as ways to learn to avoid bugs and mistakes.
I know a young child whose sense of humor tends toward jokes like
"what if the spoon were rubber," apparently observing that a
flexible spoon would be absurd because the food would fall out of it.
Is he enforcing a "must-be-rigid" property of some spoon-frame, or is
he censoring the use of some spoon-frame that lacks the property? The
humor-behavior of children also needs more study.
III. MEANING AND METAPHOR
Two villagers decided to go bird-hunting. They packed
their guns and set out, with their dog, into the fields.
Near evening, with no success at all, one said to the other,
"We must be doing something wrong". "Yes", agreed his
friend. "Perhaps we're not throwing the dog high enough."
When you want to fasten a screw and therefore reach for a certain
screwdriver, your mind has chosen to see that screwdriver as a
screw-driver; you could have seen it as a kind of dull knife, or
as a hammer without a head. When we see something only in its
"intended" aspect, we are "confusing the thing with itself." As
Korzybski (Ref. AK) intoned, "whatever a thing is, it is not".
{6}, {7}
FRAMES: I have suggested in (Ref. MM-74) that perceptions are
ordinarily interpreted by the mind in terms of previously acquired
description-structures called Frames. A frame is a way to
represent a stereotyped situation, like being in a certain kind of
room, or going to a certain kind of party. Attached to each frame are
several kinds of information; some about how to use the frame, some
about what one might expect to happen next, some about what to do if
those expectations are not confirmed, and so forth. This theory was
proposed to explain the speed and virtual absence of noticeable
phenomenology in perceiving and thinking, and here I propose to sketch
just enough of it to explain some features, and some "bugs," of
reasoning. Then we can return to unconscious censorship and
error-correction.
Each frame includes, among other things, a variety of terminals to
which other frames are attached. Thus a chair-frame specifies that a
(certain kind of) chair has a seat, a back, and four legs. The
details of these would be described, not in the chair-frame itself,
but in other frames attached to its terminals. Each frame includes
also a set of features which, if enough of them are present, may
activate the Frame. So, when you see enough parts of a chair, these
will activate one of your chair-frames which, in turn, will activate
the sub-frames attached to its terminals. These, then, will "look
for" other chair-parts that were not recognized at first -- because of
being unusual, or partially hidden from view, or whatever. Finally,
if some elements required by the frame are not seen at all -- one
rarely sees all the legs of a chair, and never all the sides of a box
-- the missing elements are supplied by default. This is easy because
most terminals of most frames have certain sub-frames already attached
as default assignments. When one reads in a story about some shoe or
some chair, these cause one, "by default" to assume a certain kind of
shoe or chair.
The concept of default goes much further. When one sees a person in a
sitting posture then, even if every part of his chair is hidden from
view, one will pseudo-see a chair under him. Unless your attention is
drawn to the fact, you never notice that no chair was actually seen.
This is because the "sitting" frame includes a "must-be-supported-by"
sub-frame terminal, and this is attached to some "typical"
chair-frame, for its default assignment. {8}
The chair-frame that is selected can depend, however, on
the context. for default assignments are weak and easy to "displace".
If there are other chairs around, the invisible chair will be assumed
to be like one of them. If the scene is set in a park, then a
park-bench frame might be activated to serve as default. If one
then noticed an arm-chair arm, the system would replace the
weakly-attached bench-frame by one that better suits what was seen --
and one now "sees" an armchair.
According to the theory in (Ref. MM-74), this is done very swiftly
because the "corresponding" terminals of related frames are already
pre-connected to one another. This makes it easy to change a
faltering interpretation or a frustrated expectation. Shifting from
one related frame to another should be so fast and efficient as to be
imperceptible to introspection. This is why one so easily recognizes
any chair as "a chair", even though particular chairs are so different
from one another. I do not suggest that all this happens by magic;
the interconnecting network is constructed over a lifetime of
experience. In (Ref. MM-77) I discuss how new frames arise usually as
revised versions of older ones, bringing those "common terminals"
along with them. In (Ref. MM-79) are more details, but one must read
between the lines of that paper because it does not use the
terminology of frames.
Frames and frame-systems are used at conceptual as well as perceptual
levels, and there we find other kinds of frame-systems -- families
of interconnected frames -- that are not transformed so easily, hence
more effort is noticed. Consider, for example, Wittgenstein's
paradigmatic question about defining "game." (Ref. Wittgenstein) The problem
is that there is no property common to all games, so that the most
usual kinds of definition fail. Not every game has a ball, nor two
competing teams; even, sometimes, there is no notion of "winning." In
my view, the explanation is that a word like "game" points to a
somewhat diffuse "system" of prototype frames, among which some
frame-shifts are easy, but others involve more strain. The analogy
between football and chess is strained only a little, more with
solitaire, and so on. Shifting from one familiar kind of
kitchen-chair to another is imperceptible, but changing a park-bench
to an arm-chair would be strain enough to "surprise".
Now I propose that much of commonsense logic itself is based on
learning to make shifts between frames that have terminals in common.
For example, if a situation fits a frame like A implies B, and B
implies C, a simple frame-shift re-represents it as A implies C. Seen
in this light, Freud's cake story appears to display some sort of
incorrect-logic script in which each consecutive pair of sentences
matches some such tried-and-true kind of reasoning step.
I presume that when we "understand" this sort of story, we represent
it in our minds as a series of pairs of overlapping assignments of
things to terminals of such frames. And somewhere along the way, in
the cake story, there is an improper assignment-change. Is it the
payment moving from the cake to the drink? Is it a pivot between
"owns" and "possesses?" Each listener must make his own theory of
what is wrong -- and devise his own way to avoid this confusion in the
future. Some people will do better at this than others.
METAPHOR: All intelligent persons also possess some larger-scale
frame-systems whose members seemed at first impossibly different --
like water with electricity, or poetry with music. Yet many such
analogies -- along with the knowledge of how to apply them -- are
among our most powerful tools of thought. They explain our ability
sometimes to see one thing -- or idea -- as though it were another,
and thus to apply knowledge and experience gathered in one domain to
solve problems in another. It is thus that we transfer knowledge via
the paradigms of Science. We learn to see gases and fluids as
particles, particles as waves, and waves as envelopes of growing
spheres.
How are these powerful connections discovered? For the simple ones,
there is no great problem: some frames are easily recognized as
similar because their terminals accept the same sorts of entities;
these could be located and classified by simple algorithms, e.g.,
searches for best match. As for those most subtle, once-in-a-lifetime
insights, whose analogical powers are hidden deep in the procedural
structures that operate on them, we hardly need a general theory to account
for them since -- like favorable evolutionary mutations -- few are ever
discovered by any single individual, and those can be thereafter
transmitted through the culture.
In any case, putting aside the origins of those rare, greatest
insights, each individual must have his own ways to build new
connections amongst his frames. I will contrast particular methods
against general methods, arguing that the two have problems that seem
somewhat opposite in character -- that the errors of "particular"
methods can be managed additively,, while bugs in the "general"
methods must be repaired subtractively. This last point will
eventually bring us back to censors.
PARTICULAR ANALOGIES: In the course of thinking, we use different
frames from one moment to the next. But frequently one of the active
frames will fail -- "that's not a door, only a big window." Winston (PHW-70) suggests that whenever such an error is (somehow)
detected, described, and corrected, we can attach to the failing frame
a "pointer" to some other frame that has been found to work in this
circumstance. The pointer must contain, of course, a description of
the failure circumstance. A family of frames connected in such a way
is called a difference network. {9} We can explain (Ref. MM-74)
the definition difficulty (e.g., that of defining "game") by supposing
that such words point not to any single frame, but into such a
network.
Any such link between two frames implies a generalization of the form
"A's are like B's, except for D". Thus, such a link is a fragment
of an analogy. Of course, like any generalization, it will likely
soon fail again and need refinement. Winston's thesis (Ref. PHW-70)
suggests ways to do this. The important point here is that,
particular analogies discovered in the course of experience, can be
remembered by adding positive, active links between frames.
GENERAL ANALOGY METHODS: What if one is confronted with a novel
situation that does not arouse any particular frame? Then, it
makes sense to try some "general" method., e.g., to compare the
situation to some large class of frames, and, select the one that
"best fits." Such a method can do much better than chance, but what
if it yields a result that does more harm than good? I will argue
that one now must build a censor, and that there is a general
principle here that learning theorists have not appreciated:
positive general principles need always to be supplemented by
negative, anecdotal censors.
For, it hardly ever pays to alter a general mechanism to correct a
particular bug. Almost every instance-specific modification of a
best-match mechanism would reduce its general usefulness. So when the
general mechanism yields a bad result, one can only remember to
suppress its subsequent appearances -- that is, to build a censor. If
a child wants his sibling's toy, he will first try seizing it -- the
most general way to get things one wants. Once the parents see to it
that this is censored, then he can find other ways. But he must not
learn in general not to take things he wants, lest he become helpless.
Some forms of humor, notably puns, turn on changing the meaning-sense
of a word. (Besides the easily distinguished dictionary senses, most
words have also many others that would never be separated in a
dictionary. "Lift," for example, has different implications when an
object weighs one gram, or a thousand, {7} and really to understand
lifting requires a network for making appropriate shifts among such
different micro-senses.) While verbal sense-shifting can be funny,
and even useful, it is dangerous, and especially hazardous to be
subject to the fortuitous, meaningless sense-shifts that depend on
superficial word-sound similarities. In a fragment of a
schizophrenic's transcript, the patient sees a penny in the street,
says "copper, that's a conductor," then must run to a street car to
speak to the conductor. Perhaps this disorder is one of frame-shift
control, either disabling the bad-analogy suppressors or irresponsibly
enhancing the general analogy-finder.
The element that seems to me most common to all the different kinds of
humor is that of unexpected frame-substitution, in which a scene is
first described from one viewpoint and then suddenly -- typically by a
single word -- one is made to view all the scene-elements in another,
quite different way. Some such shifts are insightful, of course,
while others are mere meaningless accidents. Next we turn to a kind
that could be turning points in each individual's personal evolution.
IV. TRAUMATIC COGNITIVE EXPERIENCES
"Yields truth when appended to its own quotation"
yields truth when appended to its own quotation.
--W. V. Quine
In the popular psychology of our day, Intellect is seen as
straightforward, deliberate, conscious, and emotionally neutral; but
in regard to emotional matters, the public has come generally to
accept the psychoanalytic view that Affect is dominated by unknown
terrors and traumas, lurking in the unconscious since childhood. Now
I want to challenge this affect-intellect "dumbbell". I certainly do
not mean to suggest that there are no differences of kinds in mental
affairs -- only that this particularly popular distinction, however
useful in everyday life, does more harm than good in psychology. (Ref.
MM-79)
In any case, the Affect-Intellect distinction would lose much of its
force if Reason, too, employed a powerful "cognitive unconscious" --
and that is exactly what I shall argue: that Intellect, too, has its
own buried secrets. In Freud's scenario, the ego develops largely in
contexts of fear of deprivation, punishment or mutilation; of anxiety
about uncertainty and insecurity; terror of losing the esteem or
person of parent or attachment-figure. New families of censors -- new
domains of repression -- are created when wishes conflict enough with
reality to justify attempting to keep them from becoming conscious.
Does anything like that happen in the intellectual sphere? One might
suppose not, because a necessary element is missing -- that of a
beloved -- or punitive -- authority figure. However, while Freudian
taboos originate from outside, the child needs no external
authority-figure to point out his gross cognitive failures; he needs
no parent to scold him, when an encounter with paradox throws his mind
into a frightening cyclone. The momentary loss of mental control
should provoke anxiety in its own right.
But, one might ask, if we bear the scars of frightening cognitive
experiences, why do they not reveal themselves (like the affect-laden
ones) in nightmares, compulsions, phobias, and the like? Perhaps they
do; it would not show in the interpretations of present-day
psychiatry. But every teacher knows (and fears) the rigid inhibition
of children's cognitive phobias: "I don't want to learn this; I
couldn't possibly do that". Let us speculate on how such fears
might originate. Consider the paradox of Nearness: Every child
must once have said to himself:
Hmm. Ten is almost Eleven. And Eleven is nearly Twelve.
And so on; Ninety-Nine is nearly a Hundred. But then Ten
must be almost a Hundred!
To an adult, this is not even a stupid joke. But we each must once
have thought something like: "there is obviously something wrong here.
Is it in my premises or in my logic? Well, what's my premise?
Obviously, that "if A is near B, and if B is near C, then A must be
near C." Nothing wrong with that. So there must be something wrong
with my logic. But I'm only using something like: "If A implies B,
and if B implies C, then A implies C." "How could that be
wrong? No way!"
To be sure, not everyone remembers such experiences as frightening.
In fact, ad hominem, readers of essays like this one would more
likely complain that they like such problems and cannot see them
as "traumatic." No matter, such readers are just the ones who have
found ways to transform -- what did Freud call it? -- to sublimate
such problems into constructive thinking about thinking. In any case,
in one private manner or another, everyone somehow comes to deal with
such problems, and I see only one practical way: we must each grow for
ourselves some structure, of large complexity and little elegance, to
tell us when --and when not -- to trust each such pattern of
inference. For example, we each learn never to repeat a near
deduction more than a few times in any one argument. Furthermore, the
accumulation of such experiences leads us eventually to realize that
this is not peculiar to "near" alone: perhaps one shouldn't use
any inference method too many times. What is "too many?" There
is, I fear, no elegant answer. We each have to learn and master large
of bodies knowledge about the limitations of each species of reasoning.
It might be useful to try to catalog the kinds of cognitive incidents
that must have so baffled each of us in early life. Each reader must
recall the distress of being made to discern the arbitrary boundaries
between one ocean and another, or at trying to answer "which came
first, the chicken or the egg?" Every child must have wondered about
his origin and from whence came the first person. Only the
dullest child never found for himself some sort of Zeno paradox, or
Achilles and Tortoise problem. I remember being especially disturbed
to discover that there were questions that adults had no way to
answer.
MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE: Another family of disturbances arise
when we question our own purposes. "Why should I do
this," -- whatever it is -- one asks, and proposes some
answer. But then one is impelled to continue, "why should I
want that," and so forth. There is a not uncommon
phenomenon -- sometimes called mystical experience -- from
which a person emerges with the conviction that some
unsolvable problem (like the purpose of existence) has been
completely explained; one can't remember quite how, only
that it was answered so well as to leave no doubt at all.
This, I venture, reflects some mental mechanism (perhaps one
of last resort) that, in a state of particularly severe
turmoil or stress, can short-circuit the entire intellectual
process -- by creating the illusion that the problem has
been settled. Powerful but dangerous, such a mechanism
short-cuts the canons of normal confirmation. One kind of
confusion-cycle is thereby broken, but this may damage other
ways in which sane minds confront beliefs with evidence.
Then, anything can happen. {10}
V. HUMOR AND EVOLUTION
If you wish to study a granfalloon
just remove the skin of a toy balloon.
-- Kurt Vonnegut, in Cat's Cradle
In the 1912 edition Freud, still perplexed about the purpose
of nonsense, recounts a joke of this form: {11}
"A man at the dinner table dipped his hands in the
mayonnaise and then ran them through his hair. When his
neighbor looked astonished, the man apologized: "I'm so
sorry. I thought it was spinach."
We have argued that learning about bugs is central to the growth of
reason. But reason itself grows in no vacuum; most of our ideas --
and our ideas about ideas -- come via our families and cultures, and
this poses some special communication problems. For one, it is risky
to point out the mistakes of a person one wants to please. So this
must be done in some "conciliatory" manner -- and humor seems involved
in this. For another, if learning about bugs involves a special kind
of memory, then this communication must somehow engage that memory.
In this section we propose that humor -- and more specifically,
laughter -- is innately enabled to do this, too.
But first we digress to discuss an important methodological problem:
Why is it so hard to explain why jokes are funny? Why, for that
matter, is it so hard to say precisely what is a joke? We have
already mentioned Wittgenstein's problem of defining "game": one can
find no single quality common to all the different kinds of examples
-- and one finds a similar problem in attempting to define "humor."
But we did not stop to ask why this is so. One might suppose it a
mere surface difficulty, and hope that we may yet find a single
underlying structure from which all funny things spring -- some basic
"grammar of humor," or "comical deep structure." Not so, I fear; when
we look deeper for that underlying structure of humor we shall still
find a vexing lack of unity. I argue that this is a consequence of
the way things usually evolve in biology.
In mechanisms designed by plan, it is reasonable to ask about purpose
or cause. What is the purpose of that beam in this house? Simple: to
hold up this roof -- and, perhaps, to hold those walls apart. But,
when we ask questions about structures created by evolution, we find
that only rarely does one evolutionary increment serve a single
purpose -- and rarely is one alone in serving any particular purpose.
Behavior emerges from a network of interdependent mechanisms, and one
cannot expect any compactly circumscribed theory (or mechanism)
completely to "explain" any single surface component of behavior.
What a theory can do, though, is to describe some fragment of that
larger network of interacting subsystems.
Humor, like games, serves and exploits many different needs and
mechanisms. It lacks sharp, natural boundaries because those
underlying things themselves overlap and exploit one another. When we
employ a word like "humor," one has the illusion of designating
something sharper than this kind of complex web of relations among
laughter, faulty reasoning, taboos and prohibitions, and unconscious
suppressor mechanisms. But, I think the very clarity of words is
itself a related illusion; as noted in {7}, language itself works only
because oversimplification is more useful than realistic confusion --
that is, in real life, if not for thinking about psychology.
ROLES OF LAUGHTER: Consider what happens when a thought-situation
comes to be perceived as funny or absurd: further reasoning is drowned
in a flood of activity -- furious motions of thorax, abdomen, head,
limbs and face, accompanied by loud barking, wheezing, and choking
noises. To a Martian, an epileptic seizure would be less alarming.
Adults, of course, can train themselves to suppress this, but that is
another matter.
Laughter disrupts reasoning: The laughter reaction is so distracting
as to keep the mind from proceeding further along the prohibited or
ridiculous path it has started. Whatever that line of thought, the
disruption prevents you from "taking it seriously," from acting upon
it or considering its further logical consequences.
At the same time, laughter exercises another, complementary
function.
Laughter focuses attention: While disrupting
further reasoning, laughter takes a firm grip on the thought
itself, holding up the absurdity in sharp focus. Perhaps
the joke-thought is given full attention, holding the
incongruity in some "short term memory" -- so that
"censor-learning" agency can absorb it.
Thus "humor" might serve to mediate the process in which the
censors learn, much as "pleasure" is often supposed to
mediate ordinary learning. {12}
EVOLUTION OF HUMOR: How might all this have evolved? We conjecture
that it happened while our evolving minds passed through stages of
increasing ability to reflect -- to think not merely about the
physical problems at hand, but about how we should apply our mental
resources to them; in a word, when we were learning to plan. In order
to make realistic plans, we had to learn to take account of what we
could make our minds do.
This ability could not have emerged all at once. There must have been
intermediate steps -- such as the appearance of multi-level schemes
like the one suggested above, in which an A-mind is monitored by a
B-mind. Eventually we became able to symbolize and manipulate
representations of plans, and this allowed the first direct references
to our own mental activities. Now, suddenly, we could do such tricks
as to relate statements to their own quotations, and make propositions
that (for better or for worse) could discuss their own truth -- as in
Quine's "yields truth" tour de force. {13}
In any case, once able to accomplish intricate chains of reasoning, we
became vulnerable to new kinds of bugs: faulty variable bindings,
subtle changes of sense, and more obscurely circular logic. This same
epoch probably saw also the emergence of Language for social
communication, which also converged toward using more concise and
manipulable symbolic representations. And, because we could not
weaken the expressiveness of symbol-manipulation without losing its
power, we had to evolve those censor memories. Of course, what
actually happened was surely not this simple, but we had better return
again to our speculations about laughter.
Laughter's facial component suggests that it evolved in connection
with social communication. It appears to be derived (ethologically)
in part from a "conciliatory" expression, but it includes also a
baring of teeth that suggests a defensive-aggressive mixture. {14}
Laughter's bizarre vocal component also suggests social functions that
combine ancestral "releasers" for both conciliation and aggression.
Perhaps it came somehow to serve as a signal to induce another person
to stop whatever he was doing: whether because dangerous, pointless,
objectionable, ridiculous, or otherwise forbidden.
Later, this function became internalized. If a person could feel and
hear himself laugh, grimace, and shake, why not exploit these
side-effects also to make one's own self to stop doing something
ridiculous or prohibited? Perhaps, literally, men first learned to
laugh at their own mistakes, and later learned to censure themselves
in silence.
I make no plea for this particular scenario, only that something of
this general sort must have happened, in which several pre-existing
complexes grew together. They each brought along a variety of older
interactions with other systems and purposes -- that were exploited to
produce the puzzling combinations of conciliation, aggression,
sexuality, and nonsense that are now mixed together in humor. If
other mental structures also share this kind of tangled ethological
ancestry, then a mind grown this way must now resemble a great
spider-web, in which many threads of different biological purpose
intersect in many nodes of different multi-purpose mechanisms. If so,
the goals of psychological theories must be to describe different
fragments of that web -- each to make a map of some few of those
threads and nodes.
By a curious coincidence, our theories of how minds work must
probably have themselves this same peculiar, web-like character --
albeit for a different reason. For (I think) the only way a person
can understand anything very complicated is to understand it at each
moment only locally -- like the spider itself, seeing but a few
threads and crossings from each viewpoint. Strand by strand, we build
within our minds these webs of theory, from hard-earned locally
intelligible fragments. The mind-spider's theory is correct to the
extent that the model in his head corresponds to the mechanism in his
head. {15}
Finally it is probably futile to ask precisely what humor is.
Korzybski's injunction applies here especially: the word "humor"
points to no real thing. Instead, in each different person's mind it
points to a slightly different web-model. We each use -- and mean --
the word a little differently -- just as we each laugh at different
jokes. Now I do not mean to hint that the problem is unreal, or even
that it is especially incomprehensible. I only want to suggest that
"humor" may be less a Thing-Part of the mind, and more a Thing-Theory
in the mind. This makes it no less worthy of study, but one must be
clear about what one is doing. If we get confused between making
theories about theories and making theories about things, we may spin
forever. {16}
TIME CONSTANTS: According to our thesis, familiar types of jokes
should seem less funny, because the censors have learned more about
them. Why, then, do some kinds of jokes remain so persistently funny?
People tire of old nonsense jokes, but not of jokes about forbidden
aspects of sex. Does this falsify our theory? Not necessarily; it
may mean only that the censors for this particular subject are much
slower to learn and to change. Is that plausible?
Most psychological theories of our day -- both popular and
professional -- seem to suppose that all memories are made of the same
stuff, stored in the same huge container. (I argue otherwise in (Ref.
MM-79).) But, on reflection, we see that some memories ought to be
less changeable than others. Contemplate, for example, the plight of
a mother with a new infant, that will demand her time and attention
for several years. Why doesn't she wonder "Why am I doing this," or
"what could this baby do for me to justify such a sacrifice." One
might argue "To preserve the race," or "because you will love it," or
"because it will repay you some day," but these would hardly convince
any rational person; raising a child is not, let's face it, a notably
sensible enterprise.
Conventional wisdom recognizes that love is far from rational, and
holds that an "instinctive" attachment is somehow created and somehow
protected from casual alteration. Clearly so, but we must know more
about those "somehow"s. This maternal self-questioning doesn't
usually go too far, perhaps because we are protected by the web of
personal pleasure and social compulsion surrounding child-rearing.
But the problem is real, and there are occasional (and invariably
concealed) tragedies in which a young mother's frustration overwhelms
her attachment.
The simplest way might be to build attachment into a special kind of
memory that, once established, tends to persist for several years.
After all, long time-constants characterize other aspects of
attachment. Some persons always choose different partners of similar
appearance; as though unable to alter a fixed stereotype. Others find
themselves in the grip of undesired infatuations, that reason declares
inappropriate. And most familiar is the seemingly inexorable
time-span of mourning -- the year or two it takes to adjust to
separation or loss. All these could be by-products of adaptations of
older mechanisms whose slowness was/is of value in our sociobiological
evolution. {17}
Perhaps one can also interpret in this light the prolonged,
mourning-like depression associated with sexual assault, presuming
that the momentary association of violence with sexuality somehow
impairs the entire attachment machinery. The large time-constants
make recovery slow, from a profound disturbance of normal social
attachments. No matter if the victim manages to view the incident
"rationally;" this does not automatically restore those sluggish
mechanisms to their normal state, and one must suffer the prolonged
functional deprivation of an important mind-part.
All this suggests that the curious robustness of sexual humor may
reflect only that the associated censors are among the "slow learners"
of the mind, like retarded children. Perhaps they indeed are retarded
children-- the nearly static remnants of our own early selves. They
change only slowly, and our tireless enjoyment of certain censured
subjects may be a side-effect of that circumstance.
So, we finally conclude: jokes are not really funny at all,
but reflect the most serious of concerns; the pursuit of
sobriety through the suppression of the absurd.
Cambridge, Mass. May-July, 1980
NOTES
[NOTE 0] Freud seemed somewhat puzzled by "nonsense jokes"
and suggested, to explain the worst of them, that they "give the
teller the pleasure of misleading and annoying, by rousing the
expectation of a joke and then frustrating the listener" -- who in
turn -- "damps down his annoyance by determining to tell them himself
later on." The enjoyment of nonsense, he goes on, might also reflect
a wish to return to a childhood of relaxed, careless thought in which
one "puts words together without regard to the condition that they
should make sense, in order to obtain from them the pleasurable effect
of rhythm or rhyme. Little by little he is forbidden this enjoyment,
till all that remains to him are significant combinations of words.
But when he is older attempts still emerge at disregarding the
restrictions that have been learned." (p. 125). In connection with
alcoholic cheerfulness, Freud recounts a pun: "It is most instructive
to observe how standards of joking sink as spirits rise" -- and later
-- "the grown man becomes a child, who finds pleasure in having the
course of this thoughts freely at his disposal without paying regard
to the compulsion of logic" (p. 127). (1905)
Freud's later image of childhood was different, with more emphasis on
fears, frustrations, and the oppression of a growing self-image that
emerges from internal models of authority and attachment figures. In
the present essay's conception of the growth of logic in the child, I
suggest a comparable self-image of Rationality -- only here with
less need for an external human model, because confusion automatically
imposes its own sanctions.
It was not quite accurate to say that Freud never returned to the
subject, for in 1927 (Ref. SF-27) he published a brief essay in which,
still regarding jokes as a source of pleasure, he now portrays humor
(in contrast) as a way to ward off suffering. The super-ego, like a
parent, comforts the frightened childlike ego, repudiating reality by
suggesting that however dangerous the world may seem, it is nothing
but a game for children. Freud is troubled, though, that this seems
out of character for the superego; perhaps the thesis of this essay
resolves that. In any case, all this impinges on the area of "adult
theory" that I hesitate to discuss here, for the reasons noted in
{16}.
[NOTE 1] The Society of Mind. Some of the ideas in this essay
originated in my earlier work with Seymour Papert, especially the
ideas about the construction of the mind through exploitation of
different agencies by one another. The present paper, along with (Ref
MM-65), (Ref MM-74), (Ref. MM-77). and (Ref. MM-79) are all related,
but I have yet to attempt a single, comprehensive account. The key
idea is to reject the conventional view of the mind as a Single Agent
that either thinks of something or doesn't; rather, the mind is
composed of many smaller minds, themselves composed of yet smaller
ones. It would mean little to talk about what these separately
"think", for each becomes specialized to perform functions meaningful
only vis-a-vis those few others that it has connections with. The
phenomenological observations that a "person" makes about himself
emerge in a very indirect way from those interactions.
One (of many) reasons to consider decentralized psychological theories
is that they seem potentially better able to provide for mechanisms
that exploit knowledge about knowledge than do the control
structures that have become traditional in the literatures of AI and
of Cognitive Psychology. It is perfectly understandable that the
early years of the "Information Processing Approach" should have
focused on the astonishing power of the newly-invented single-process
serial computer. But "meta-knowledge" is not easily accommodated by
such machines, and I see the strain showing in attempts to realize more
ambitious ideas about intelligent learning -- viz., that in (ref.
RD-80), (ref. JD-80).
[Note 2] Partial Mental state. I don't mean to suggest that the
entire brain ever repeats the some global state. One could say
but little about "mental states" if one imagined the Mind to be a
single, unitary thing. But if we envision a mind (or brain) as
composed of many partially autonomous "agents", then we can talk of
repeating a "partial mental state" -- that is, a subset of the
states of those agents. This is discussed more precisely in (Ref.
MM-79). The notion of partial mental state allows one to speak of
entertaining several partial states at once -- to the extent they
are compatible -- that is, they do not assign different states to the
same individual agents. And even when they conflict, the concept
still has meaning if such conflicts can be settled within the Society.
In (Ref. MM-79) I argue that such local mechanisms for conflict
resolution could be the antecedents of what we know later as
reasoning -- useful ways to combine different fragments of
knowledge.
[Note 3] Consciousness. As I see it, "consciousness" phenomena
can emerge from the operation of a "self-referent" mechanism when it
tries to account for some of what it itself is doing. I doubt we
possess any especially direct and powerful ways to do this, so we
probably do it much as we understand anything else -- that is, by
making and refining models that may never be particularly accurate.
Technically, discussing such matters is messy because of the web of
different meanings for "self-reference" itself. Should we call a
system self-referent just because it operates on data derived from its
own operation? It might be considered so if it can be seen as trying
to describe itself. The self-reference of planning -- as when one
says "I shall do X" -- is different from simply expecting to do X,
because it entails (usually) subsidiary plans like "I shall remain
firm and not allow Y to cause me to 'change my mind'". Should we
call a system self-referent when, only by accident, a structure inside
it happens to resemble (in an outside observer's opinion) a
larger-scale description of itself? In any case it seems quite clear
that our psychological self-models are far from technically accurate
-- yet serve a variety of social-heuristic-survival needs. In (Ref.
MM-65) I discussed how models that are technically quite wrong can
still be useful; in particular it suggests an explanation of the
illusion of free will.
In general, I see little reason to suppose that the "conscious" parts
of our minds have any direct access to our own "top-level goals." --
or even to suppose that any such "top level" exists, i.e., that the
mental society has a strict hierarchy. Even if there were, Evolution
probably would have found a way to block the rest of the mind from
being able to examine it too closely -- if only to keep the logical
bull out of the teleological china shop. {10} In any case I suspect
that if there is a top-level it consists of agencies access to
which would reveal nothing intelligible (for reasons described in
{12}). In (MM-77) I discuss some possible mechanisms that might be
"central" in thinking, because their use would be as limited, scarce
resources. These might indeed play roles in our articulate,
self-model formulations but, again, those models could be very
unrealistic.
[Note 4] Non-monotonic logic. I discussed these problems with
logic very briefly in (Ref. MM-74a). Doyle's 1980 thesis (Ref. JD-80)
has a very imaginative discussion of such matters. One might ask
whether the safe regions are like separate islands, or is logic
generally safe if we avoid scattered pitfalls.
[NOTE 5] Confusion. When a person can say "I'm confused," he is a
large step beyond merely being confused because, presumably, he has
gone on enough to have recognized a somewhat specific
metapsychological condition.
[Note 6] Familiar. Schank (Ref. RS) points out that it is only
when one doesn't quite" recognize something that one thinks "that
looks familiar". When something is decisively recognized there is
no such phenomenology; one notices the matching process only when the
match is imperfect and strained.
[Note 7] Ambiguity. All but the most childish jokes have two or
more meanings "condensed" into one expression or situation. It is
commonplace to wonder about non-humorous ambiguities of words and
phrases, and how the mind decides which thought is intended. It is
not so often realized that thoughts themselves can be ambiguous --
because a (partial) mental state can be a precursor of many others,
depending on the computational context within the mind. (Ref. MM-77)
[Note 8] Excuses. This is oversimplified in many ways. Defaults
are not mere conveniences; they are perhaps our most powerful means
for making generalizations, because they activate whatever is
"typical" of some class by activating the memory of a typical
individual of that class. And even when they are not useful, such
assumptions are usually innocuous -- provided that they are weakly
enough attached so that they are easily displaced by "reality".
However, this hypothetical default mechanism has many potential bugs
of its own. In particular, one must not make mistakes about
"supported-by" for all sorts of personal safety reasons. If there is
no visible support and no intervening object then this is a
levitation absurdity.
I suspect that ethnic humor exemplifies a larger-scale sociobiological
bug that emerges from the frame mechanism. Why are nonsense jokes are
so often used also to deride alien social groups? A popular theory is
that it provides an opportunity to display aggression, and no doubt
this is true. But there may also be a more technical reason. I argue
in (Ref. MM-74) that it is hard to understand a story about a person
unless one is provided with a specific person-frame -- it does not
matter how stereotyped. Communication is simplified when the listener
does not have to choose a frame for himself. Thus bigotry may emerge
spontaneously as a side-effect of this circumstance of representation;
when, for example one makes a joke about stupidity, it is
psycho-computationally convenient to project it onto some stereotype
-- preferably alien to avoid conflict with known reality. Obviously,
this may become a runaway process, as that stereotype accumulates
undeserved absurdities. Sooner or later one loses track of the
humorous origin of that structure. It will be hard to eradicate
prejudice without understanding the importance (and value) of
stereotypes in ordinary thinking.
[Note 9] Many of the ideas about the importance of discerning
differences came as early as (Ref. AN-57) and (Ref. MM-56), but (Ref.
PHW-70) had the first clear idea of a difference-network. More
recently, in (Ref. PHW-79) Winston has considered using frames for
more complex analogies. The serious study of "bugs" was perhaps first
considered in the work of Papert on early education (Ref. LOGO) and
then in the doctoral theses of Sussman (Ref. GJS-72) and Goldstein
(Ref. IPG-72).
[NOTE 10] Defense. Lewis Thomas remarks in (Ref. LT) that
philosophers and linguists "are compelled to use as their sole
research instrument the very apparatus they wish to study." He
recounts that, while listening to a proof of Godel's theorem: "just as
I was taking it all in, I suddenly felt something like the flicking of
a mercury wall switch and it all turned to nonsense in my head" and
suggests -- presuming one can tell when this scientist-poet is serious
-- that there is a "scrambler in the brain, a protective device
preserving the delicate center of the mechanism of language against
tinkering and meddling, shielding the mind against information with
which it has no intention of getting involved." Perhaps he's right.
[Note 11] Spinach. A reader mentioned that she heard this joke
about brocolli, not mayonnaise. This is funnier, because it
transfers a plausible mistake into an implausible context. In Freud's
version the mistake is already too silly: one could mistake
spinach for broccoli, but not for mayonnaise. I suspect that Freud
transposed the wrong absurdity when he determined to tell it
himself later on. Indeed, he (p.139) seems particularly annoyed at
this joke -- and well he might be if, indeed, he himself damaged it by
spoiling the elegance of the frame-shift. I would not mention this
were it not for the established tradition of advancing psychiatry by
analyzing Freud's own writings.
[NOTE 12] Enjoyment. As Freud demanded, we have to explain why
humor is pleasant, yet is so often about unpleasant -- painful,
disgusting, or forbidden matters. There is nothing really funny about
most good jokes - except perhaps in the skill with which the content
is disguised. Now, there is no shortage of explanations of how this
reversal of sign might come about: the censor-energy theory, the "I'm
glad it didn't happen to me" theory, the minimizing the importance of
reality theory, and so forth. Yet the question remains all the more
important and difficult because, everyone supposing the matter to be
obvious, no one seems to have proposed any sophisticated theories of
pleasure itself -- so all those commonsense "mini-theories" seem
built on sand.
What is pleasure, and why do we like it? It is not a tautology.
Clearly pleasure involves a complex web concerned with: learning and
goals; with activities one wants to continue and/or repeat; and with
anticipations and rehearsals of such. What makes the issue elusive, I
think, is that we "sense" pleasure only through an elaborately
constructed illusion -- typical of our tendency to represent things to
ourselves as though they were more coherent than they really are.
We indulge in such illusions even when we say the seemingly simplest
things of the form "I feel xxx". These exemplify a "single agent"
concept of mind, an illusion of coherency that denies that within the
mind different agencies play different roles at the same moment. For
example, one part may be rewarded for disciplining another. Yet if,
as I suppose, the pleasure phenomenon does indeed involve a complex
web of different activities, we still need to explain why they seem
phenomenologically to have so much in common.
Here is one conjecture: what was initially common to all those
activities was only a metapsychological feature -- they were just
the ones most subject to being disturbed by the "noise" of other
members of the Society of Mind. This would create an ecological
niche, within that Society, for the emergence of a special brain
center that, when activated by any of them, tends to depress all the
others. (One does not so welcome the offer of one kind of pleasure,
while involved with another.) Once such a center comes into
existence, that very fact would facilitate the formation, in a growing
mind, of a concept or belief in the commonality of the mechanisms
associated with it.
A second conjecture: such a centralization would better enable each
member of the mental society to be able to tell when it has done
something to satisfy a need of another -- -- without having to
understand which one, or any of the what or why of it. But note how
my use of the word "satisfy betrays my intention by intimating that
same unintended uniformity. It is perhaps this betrayal that fools us
all into thinking it a tautology, unworthy of study, to ask "why do
we like pleasure".
Seymour Papert has suggested to me yet another, more sociobiological
conjecture about how evolution might have gathered these ingredients
together and provided them with a single, common, output. It would
make it easier for a mother to tell when she has satisfied her child's
need of the moment, without having to learn specific signs for each
such need. Similarly, this would help one person tell when he is
convincing another, and so forth. All that is accomplished by
attaching a suitable collection of different internal processes to one
single "consummatory act" -- to use Tinbergen's term.
[Note 13] My daughter Julie watched "yields truth"
for a while and then said, "well, it's not exactly a
paradox, but it does keep saying that it's true, back and
forth."
[Note 14] Displacement. Lorenz (Ref. KL) and Tinbergen (Ref. NT)
frequently observed peculiar, seemingly pointless behaviors when an
animal is poised between fight and flight. What better time to
consider negotiating? So, one might a priori expect to find
ambiguities in the primordial germs of social sign-systems.
[Note 15] I don't mean all this to seem pessimistic. It is not
necessary, in understanding something, to have all one knows about it
active in the mind at one time. One does need to have access to
fragments of maps, at various levels of detail, of what one knows.
The thesis of Kuipers (Ref. BK-78?), which proposes a theory of how a
person's knowledge of a city might be represented in computational
terms, might be re-interpreted as a metaphor for how minds might deal
with their own knowledge.
[Note 16] Theories. There is, I think, a special problem in
making theories about the psychology of adults, in whom cultural
evolution has had its full interaction with individual and organic
evolution. Consider that complex of laughing, smiling, good-natured
interactions called "good humor", in which we as often enjoy engaging
and surprising frame-shifts of high quality as we enjoy nonsense
worthy only of being suppressed. The joking ambiance is used as much
to develop analogies as to restrict them -- and my distinction between
positive and negative seems to fall apart. If anything remains
uniform in the different varieties of humor, it is perhaps only that
highlighting of manipulating unexpected frame-shifts -- but in a
bewildering variety of ways. Does this mean the theory is refuted? I
think not, but to explain why I must digress to discuss "adult
development."
No, a baby theory is not necessarily refuted by an adult
counterexample. Most psychologists have not sufficiently appreciated
the full power of an adult intellect to re-construct itself -- to
exploit and rearrange its earlier components. Stage after stage of
intricate developments are superimposed, in which both internal and
cultural influences modify earlier ones. This process would be
complicated enough if it were spontaneous -- that is, if only internal
factors were involved. But much of it is also socially
institutionalized; everyone in the culture "knows" which concerns, and
which manners of behavior, are "appropriate" for four-year-olds,
nine-year-olds, college students, or professors of philosophy.
The most powerful theoreticians of developmental psychology have
struggled to untangle the different principles and forms of these
influences; still only the surface has been touched. We yet know far
too little to confidently declare that such-and-such a behavioral
exhibition either illustrates or refutes a given psychogenetic
hypothesis. In my view, the most profitable activity in the present
era is to experiment, not on people to see if an hypothesis about the
mind is true or false, but on computers to see if a proposed
theory-fragment can be made part of a system that shows mind-like
activity. To be sure, this can never show, by itself, that the theory
in question then must resemble a human mechanism -- but it seems
hardly worth trying to verify that until a theory shows signs of
meeting a first condition -- that it be capable of contributing to
life-like activity. In short, we are unlikely to discover much of
that which is, until we discover more of that which could be.
[Note 17] Attachment. Of course, the sociobiology of reproduction
is far more complicated than suggested here. Provisions for
child-raising conflict in many ways with provisions for
gene-dissemination. Many different sociobiological islands of
stability exist, both potentially and actually.
An "acquisition envelope" hypothesis: Here is a different example
of how both individual and social development might be influenced by a
genetic control of a learning-rate. It is a commonplace observation
that persons who learn second languages after adolescence rarely
acquire the phonetic competence of native speakers; they rarely come
to speak the new language "without an accent". When told to pronounce
something "like this, not like that," they seem to sense too
little difference to know what changes to make. I conjecture that
this reflects a post-pubertal change in a brain mechanism -- and may
illustrate an important way for genetic control to affect cognitive
development.
More precisely, the conjecture is that (i) phonetic learning occurs in
some particular brain structure whose capacity to learn new
discriminations is (ii) shut off by a genetic mechanism linked to
pubertal changes. It is linked to puberty because that is the
biological moment when one's role shifts from learning to teaching .
Its "evolutionary purpose" is to prevent the parent from learning the
child's language; this makes the child learn the adult language.
After all, a young parent's principal goal is not language instruction
-- it is communication. If it were easy for the parent to adopt the
child's idiosyncratic phonology, that's what would happen! But then
the parent would learn the child's language -- and the child would
have less drive, or opportunity, to learn the adult's. And, over the
span of generations, it would be hard for any common social language
to develop at all!
When we talk of innate vs. acquired aspects of development, we must
face the problem of encoding for structures whose acquisition cannot
be genetically anticipated -- e.g., details of cognitive or linguistic
structure. Our idea is first to look instead for ways for genetics to
affect directly the "acquisition envelopes" -- the control
structures that mediate how things are learned. The foregoing
hypothesis illustrates, I think, one way that brain genetics might
circumvent the complexity of devising direct constraints on the
representations of not-yet-acquired cognitive structures.
REFERENCES
(Ref. LOGO) I.P.Goldstein and Seymour Papert, Artificial
Intelligence, Language, and the Study of Knowledge, MIT Artificial
Intelligence Laboratory Technical Report TR-337, March 1976
(Ref. PHW-70) Winston, P. H., "Learning Structural Descriptions by
Examples", in Psychology of Computer Vision, (P.H. Winston, Ed.)
McGraw-Hill, 1975.
(Ref. BK-78) Benjamin Kuipers, Representing Knowledge of Large-Scale
Space, MIT Ph.D. Thesis, JUly 1978, MIT Artificial Intelligence
Laboratory Technical Report TR-418
(Ref. PHW-79) Patrick H. Winston, Learning by Understanding Analogies,
MIT-AI memo 520, June 1979.
(Ref. GJS) Gerald J. Sussman, A Computational Model of Skill
Acquisition, MIT Ph.D. Thesis, MIT Artificial Intelligence
Laboratory Technical Report TR-297, August 1973
(Ref. IPG) Ira P. Goldstein, Understanding Simple Picture
Programs, MIT Ph.D. Thesis, MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory
Technical Report TR-294, April 1974
(Ref. Lw) L. Wittgenstein, Philosophical Investigations, Oxford 1953.
(Ref. AK) Alfred Korzybski, Science and Sanity, Science Press,
Lancaster Penn., 1941
(Ref. RS) Roger Schank, [paper on Memory, in] Cognitive Science, 1980.
(Ref. LT) Lewis Thomas, "The Scrambler in the Mind," in The Medusa
and the Snail, Bantam, 1980
(Ref. SF) Sigmund Freud, Jokes and their relation to the
Unconscious, 1905, (transl. Strachey) Standard Edition, vol. 8,
Hogarth Press, 1957
(Ref. TMS] Jon Doyle, Truth Maintenance Systems for Problem
Solving, MIT AI Lab. Technical Report TR-419, Jan. 1978
(Ref. NT) Niko Tinbergen, The Study of Instinct, Oxford University
Press, 1951.
{Ref Lorenz} King Solomon's Ring,
Thomas Y. Crowell, N.Y., 1961.
(Ref. JD) Jon Doyle, A Model for Deliberation, Action, and
Introspection, MIT Ph.D. Thesis, MIT Artificial Intelligence
Laboratory, August 1980,
(Ref. BAK) William A. Kornfeld, Using Parallel Processes for
Problem Solving, MIT Artificial Intelligence Memo 561, Dec. 1979
(Ref. SF-27) Sigmund Freud, "Humour," 1927, (transl. Strachey)
Standard Edition, vol. 21, Hogarth Press, 1957, pp.161-166.
(Ref. AN-57) A. Newell, J.C.Shaw and H.A.Simon, "Preliminary
Description of the General Problem Solving Program (GPS-1), CIP
Working Paper no. 7, Dec. 1957.
(Ref. MM-74a) Minsky, Marvin "A Framework for Representing Knowledge,"
Artificial Intelligence Memo No. 306, MIT, AI Lab., June, 1974.
(Ref. MM-74b) Minsky, Marvin "A Framework for Representing Knowledge,"
condensed version, in The Psychology of Computer Vision, Winston
(ed.), Mcgraw-Hill, 1975.
(Ref. MM-77) Minsky, Marvin "Plain Talk About Neurodevelopmental
Epistemology," Proceedings of the Fifth International Joint
Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
August, 1977. Condensed version in Winston and Brown (eds.),
Artificial Intelligence, vol. 1, MIT Press, 1979
(Ref. MM-79) Minsky, Marvin, "K-lines: a Theory of Memory,"
Cognitive Science, vol. 4, no. 2, April 1980, pp.117-133.
(Ref. MM-65) Minsky, Marvin,"Matter, Mind and Models," Proceedings of
IFIP Congress 1965, May, 1965, pp. 45-49. Reprinted in Semantic
Information Processing, MIT Press, 1968?
(Ref. MM-56) Marvin Minsky, Heuristic Aspects of the Artificial
Intelligence Problem, Lincoln Laboratory, M.I.T., Lexington, Mass.,
Group Rept. No. 34-55, ASTIA Doc. No. AS 236885; December, 1956<.
(Ref. RD-80) Randy Davis, "Meta-rules: reasoning about control,"
to appear in Artificial Intelligence, 1981.
(Ref. SJ-67) S. C. Johnson, "Hierarchical Clustering",
Psychometrica, 32, 241-254, 1967.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Howard Cannon, Danny Hillis, William Kornfeld, David Levitt,
Gloria Rudisch, and Richard Stallman for suggestions. Gosrdon Oro
provided the dog-joke.
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